Portugal

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 'Portugal ', officially the  'Portuguese Republic ' (in Portuguese language,  República Portuguesa ; Pronunciation International Phonetic Alphabet ) is located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula, and is the westernmost country in continental Europe. Portugal is bordered by Spain to the north and east and by the Atlantic Ocean to the west and south. In addition, Portugal includes two archipelagos in the Atlantic Ocean, Azores Islands ( Açores ) and Madeira Islands. Portugal has witnessed a constant flow of different civilizations during the past 3,100 years. Iberians, Tartessos, Celtic, Phoenician and Carthage, Greeks, Roman Empire, Germanic tribes (Suevi and Visigoth), Semitic (Arabic, Sephardi Jews, etc.), Moors and Portuguese people cultures have all made an imprint on the country's culture, history, language and ethnic make up. The History of Portugal#Naming of Portugal itself reveals most of the country's early history, stemming from the Roman name  Portus Cale , possibly a Latin name  Portus  mixed with ancient Greek  Kale  , meaning "Beautiful Port". During the 15th century and 16th century, Portugal was a major economic, political, and cultural power, Portuguese Empire stretching from Brazil to the Indies.

History

Lusitania

In the early first millennium BC, several waves of Celts invaded Portugal from Central Europe and intermarried with local peoples, the Iberians, forming the Celt-Iberians. Early Greek explorers named the region "Ophiussa" (Greek for "land of serpents") because the natives worshipped serpents. In 238 BC, the Carthaginians occupied the Mediterranean coasts of the Peninsula. At this time several tribes occupied the territory, of which the most important were the Lusitanians, who lived between the Douro and Tagus rivers, and the Gallaecia who lived north of the Douro river. The Cynetes or Conii, influenced by Tartessos, were long established in Algarve. The Celtici, a later wave of Celts, settled in Alentejo. In 219 BC, the first Ancient Rome troops invaded the Iberian Peninsula, driving the Carthaginians out during the Punic Wars. The Roman conquest of Portugal started from the south, where they found friendly natives, the Conii. Over decades, the Romans increased their sphere of control. But in 194 BC a rebellion began in the north, and the Lusitanians successfully held off the Romans, taking back land and ransacking Conistorgis, the Conii capital, which was allied with Rome. Viriathus, born in Lorica, today's Loriga, in Portugal, was the Lusitanian leader. Viriathus waged a successful, protracted war against Rome, which prevailed only by bribing Lusitanian officials to kill Viriathus. After the conquest, the process of Culture of Ancient Rome began.

The kingdom

In the 5th century, Germanic tribes tribes, most notably the Suevi and the Visigoths, invaded the Iberian peninsula, set up kingdoms, and were eventually assimilated into the Roman culture of the peninsula. An Islamic invasion took place in 711. Many of the ousted nobles took refuge in the unconquered north Asturia highlands. From there they aimed to reconquer their lands from the Moors. In 868, Count Vímara Peres reconquered and governed the region between the Minho (river) and Douro rivers. The county became known as  Portucale  (i.e. Portugal), due to its most important city, Portucale (today's Porto) and a town was founded with his name - Vimaranes (today's Guimarães) - where he chose to live. While a dependency of the Kingdom of León, Portugal attempted to gain de facto independence during weaker Leonese governments, but it lost its autonomy in 1071 due to one of these attempts, thus ending the rule of the counts of the House of Vímara Peres. Twenty years later, Count Henry, Count of Portugal from Burgundy was appointed Count of Portugal as a reward for military services to Alfonso VI of León, and given the task of expanding the territory southwards. The County's territory corresponded to what is now northern Portugal, with its capital in Guimarães. Henry died in 1112 and his wife, Theresa, Countess of Portugal took control of the county. The city of Braga, one of the most important Roman Catholic Church centres of the Iberian Peninsula, faced new competition from other regions. The lords of the cities of Coimbra and Porto, along with the clergy of Braga, demanded the independence of the county. Portugal traces its emergence as a nation to 24 June 1128, by the hand of Afonso I of Portugal, son of Henry and Theresa, who emerged victorious from the Battle of São Mamede against his mother's retainers. On 5 October 1143 Alfonso VII, king of León and Castile, recognized Afonso as king of Portugal. Only in 1179 would Pope Alexander III formally award Afonso I the Holy See's recognition, through the Manifestis Probatum bull. Afonso and his immediate successors (Sancho I of Portugal, Afonso II of Portugal, Sancho II of Portugal and Afonso III of Portugal), aided by several military monastic Orders, such as the Knights Templar, the Order of Santiago and the Knights Hospitaller, pushed southward to wrest more land from the Moors. In 1249 the Portuguese Reconquista ended when it reached the southern coast of the Algarve. In an era of several wars when Portugal and Castile tried to control one another, King Fernando I of Portugal died with no male heirs. His only child, Beatrice, had married King John I of Castile who would therefore be the King of Portugal after Ferdinand's death. However, the prospect of losing independence to Castile was not acceptable to the majority of the Portuguese, which led to the 1383-1385 Crisis. A faction of petty noblemen and common folk, led by John of Aviz (later John I of Portugal), with the help of Nuno Álvares Pereira, defeated the Castilians and their Portuguese supporters at Battle of Aljubarrota, the most celebrated battle of Portuguese history, on 14 August 1385. John of Aviz, who had been made king at the Coimbra  Cortes  in April 1385, continued the war, intermittently, until the final peace treaty of Medina del Campo (1431). In 1386 Portugal had made an alliance with England through the Treaty of Windsor 1386, which included the marriage of King John I with Philippa of Lancaster, daughter of John of Gaunt. This alliance, which still stands to this day, is probably the longest in history.

The Portuguese discoveries

In the following decades, conditions arose that would make Portugal spearhead the exploration of the world. The Portuguese bourgeoisie, who had supported and helped the victorious King, had quickly risen up through the social ranks of Portugal, creating a new, dynamic generation which allowed the discoveries to proceed. On 25 July 1415, the Portuguese Empire began when a Portuguese fleet led by King John I departed to besiege and conquer Ceuta in North Africa, a rich Islamic trade centre. On 21 August the city fell. In 1418 two captains of Prince Henry the Navigator were driven by a storm to an island which they called Porto Santo island, or  Holy Port , thankful that they had been spared from shipwreck. Also in the early 15th century, Madeira Island and the Azores were discovered. Henry the Navigator's interest in exploration, along with some technological developments in navigation, made Portugal's expansion possible and led to great advances in geographic knowledge. In 1434, Gil Eanes sailed past Cape Bojador, south of Morocco. The trip marked the beginning of the Portuguese exploration of Africa. At the end of the 1200s and the beginning of the 1300s centuries, those who tried to venture there became lost, giving birth to legends of sea monsters. Fourteen years later, on a small island known as Arguim, off the coast of Mauritania a castle was built, functioning as a trading outpost for commerce with inland Africa. Some time later, using caravels, a kind of ship the Portuguese invented to help with the explorations, the Gulf of Guinea was explored, leading to the discovery of several uninhabited islands. The Congo River was reached during one such foray. After the Portuguese reached India, in 1498, they made many discoveries, leading to economic prosperity. However, the Portuguese population in the entire kingdom numbered only about one million. Hence, new territory was being both charted and acquired, but there were not enough people to settle the colonies. So, to protect them and the trade routes, Portugal kept a high level of secrecy. This policy has proven frustrating for historians, as some areas may have been discovered before the commonly held dates. It has even been alleged that the Portuguese may have known of the Americas before the voyage of Columbus. Some experts claim that Colombus was in fact Portuguese, while others forward the hypothesis that he was not only Portuguese but a "double agent" trying to keep the Spanish out of the Indian trade routes. A remarkable achievement was the rounding of the Cape of Good Hope by Bartolomeu Dias in 1487. By then the spices of India were nearby, hence the name of the cape. In the last decade of the 15th century, Pêro de Barcelos and João Fernandes Lavrador explored North America , Pêro da Covilhã reached Ethiopia, searching for the mythical kingdom of Prester John, and Vasco da Gama reached India in 1498. In 1500, Pedro Álvares Cabral landed on the Brazil coast. Ten years later, Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Goa, in India, Ormuz in the Persian Straight, and Malacca in modern day Malaysia as to ensure Portuguese dominion of the commerce in the Indian Ocean. The Portuguese kings eventually adopted the title of  Rei de Portugal e dos Algarves d'Aquém e d'Além-mar em África, Senhor da Guiné, e da Conquista, Navegação e Comércio da Etiópia, Arábia, Pérsia e Índia  - King of Portugal and of the Algarves, on this side and overseas in Africa, Lord of Guinea, and of the Conquest, Navigation and Commerce of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia and of India. In 1578, the young King Sebastião of Portugal decided to enlarge Portuguese possessions in northern Africa and, despite having no son and heir to the throne, decided to go into battle personally, where he is said to have been slain. Because Philip II of Spain was the son of a Portuguese princess, he became Philip I of Portugal in 1580. Portugal formally maintained its independent law, currency, colonies, and government, under a personal union between Portugal and Spain. New empires had emerged and started to harass the Portuguese Empire. The third Habsburg king, Philip IV of Spain tried to further enforce integration, openly attacking the Portuguese nobility that was not in his favour. In 1 December 1640, the Duke of Bragança, of the Portuguese Royal Family, John IV of Portugal, was hailed as king after a rebellious uprising backed by disgruntled Portuguese nobles, and a Restoration War was fought for 28 years in Europe, Brazil and Africa.

Bragança Dynasty

The 1755 Lisbon earthquake and tsunami, which killed more than a third of Lisbon's population and devastated the Algarve as well, had a profound effect on domestic politics and on European philosophical thought. In 1807, the Portuguese Court fled to Brazil, while the country was occupied during the Napoleonic Wars. Shortly after, Brazil proclaimed its independence, under the rule of the Portuguese King Pedro IV of Portugal (Pedro I of Brazil), who abdicated from the Portuguese Crown and left his daughter D. Maria II of Portugal as Queen in a liberal regime. The Portuguese 19th Century is marked by Liberalism. The divisions between King Pedro IV - liberal - and his brother, King Miguel of Portugal, a conservative who overthrew Queen Maria II, led to the civil war between 1832 and 1834 and the signing of the new constitution in 1838. The political and social evolution of the late 19th century was marked by instability.

The republics

In 1910 a republican revolution deposed the Portuguese monarchs, starting the  First Republic . Political chaos, strikes, a deteriorated relationship with the Catholic Church, and considerable economic problems aggravated by a disastrous Portugal in the Great War led to a military coup d'état on 28th May 1926 coup d'état, later, the military administration gave way to the Estado Novo (Portugal) in 1933, led by António de Oliveira Salazar. This  New State  was a right-wing, Catholic dictatorship. The regime dominated the country during the following decades, helped by a strong political police, the PIDE. In the early 1960s, independence movements became active in the colonies of Angola, Mozambique and Portuguese Guinea, starting the Portuguese Colonial Wars. The burden of the many colonial overseas wars and the lack of political and civil liberties led to the end of the regime after the  Carnation Revolution  in April 25 of 1974, a bloodless left-wing military coup that instated a democratic regime. In 1975, Portugal had Portuguese legislative election, 1975 since 1926 and granted independence to its colonies in Africa. During the post-revolutionary period, the left-wing promoted several changes, such as the nationalisation of the key sectors of the economy and the creation of a social welfare network. In 1976, a democratic Portuguese Constitution, still in force today, was approved. Immediately after the revolution, membership in the European Community became an objective of the new government. This was achieved in 1986; since then Portugal has been engaged in a process of economic convergence. However, the country remains one of the least developed in the EU. In 1999 the Asian dependency of Macau was returned to People's Republic of China sovereignty, a process considered a success by China and Portugal, signalling the end of the Portuguese colonial rule.

Government and politics

Portugal is a democratic republic. The four main organs of Portuguese politics are the List of Presidents of Portugal, the Assembly of the Republic, the Government, and the Courts. The Constitution grants the complete separation between these powers. The President of the Republic, elected to a 5-year term by universal suffrage is also commander in chief of the armed forces. Presidential powers include appointing the List of Prime Ministers of Portugal, as advised by the Parliament which elects the Prime Minister, and the Council of Ministers, named by the Prime Minister. Some other major powers include dismissing the Government, dissolving the Parliament, and declaring war or peace. These have several constitutional restrictions, namely the need to consult the presidential advisory body. This is the Council of State, composed of six senior civilian officers, all former presidents elected since 1976, and ten citizens, five chosen by the President and the other five by the Parliament. The most commonly used power is that of approving or veto any legislation. The Parliament, or  Assembly of the Republic  ( Assembleia da República  in Portuguese language) is a unicameral body composed of 230 deputies. It is elected by universal suffrage, and the seats are allocated using the d'Hondt method in 22 constituencies that elect a number of deputies proportional to the respective population, 18 for each Districts of Portugal, 1 for Madeira, 1 for Azores and 2 for the diaspora, on Europe and outside Europe. Deputies serve terms of office of 4 years. The Assembly of the Republic, along with the government, holds the legislative power and the government support lies upon it. The General Budget and the Programme of the Government must be approved by a majority of the deputies, otherwise the government falls. The Assembly may also let the government fall by approving a motion of no confidence. The President of Parliament substitutes for the President of the Republic in the event of his absence. The Government is headed by the Prime Minister, who names the Council of Ministers. The Courts have several categories, including judicial, administrative and fiscal. The national Portuguese Supreme Court is the court of last appeal. A nine-member Portuguese Constitutional Court reviews the constitutionality of legislation. The national and regional governments are dominated by two political parties, the Socialist Party (Portugal), a Social Democracy party, that resembles the British Labour Party (UK) or the German Social Democratic Party of Germany, and the Social Democratic Party (Portugal), a conservative party, member of the European People's Party, both with similar base politics: pro-European, and focusing on market economy. Other parties with seats in the parliament are the Portuguese Communist Party, the People's Party (Portugal), the Leftwing Bloc and the The Greens (Portugal). The Communists and the Greens are in coalition as the Unitarian Democratic Coalition. As of 2005, José Sócrates is the prime minister for the Socialists, and the party also has an absolute majority in the parliament with 121 MPs, the Social Democratic Party holds 75 MPs, the Communist Party 12 MPs, the People's Party 12 MPs, the Leftwing Bloc 8 MPs and the Green party 2 MPs. Portuguese public opinion and media tend to be Europhile. In the EuroBarometer's 2004 Spring survey, 60% of the Portuguese said they trusted the European Union. Abortion law is restrictive, allowing for legal abortion under some circumstances, such as rape or a life-threatening situation for the mother or the fetus. In a Portuguese referendum on Abortion, 1998 proposing almost free abortion until 12 weeks of gestation, the results were 51% against, 49% in favour. However, the turnout of this election was a scant 31% of the population. A new referendum is promised to be held soon. In July 2006, four women were condemned to six month in jail under the abortion law. Possessing small doses of drugs for personal use is not a crime in Portugal, but it can be seen as a cause for civil disorder. Handing out or producing drugs is considered a crime. Gay rights are also upcoming as the sexual orientation is now protected by the Portuguese Constitution following EU's directives, and gay couples can form Civil unions in Portugal

Foreign relations and military

Foreign relations are essential to Portugal. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance, an alliance dating from 1373, has been retained throughout its history, making it the oldest alliance still in force in the world. This English–Portuguese alliance was renewed in 1386 with the Treaty of Windsor 1386. The treaty established a pact of mutual support between the countries. This alliance was used in the successive expulsion of the Spanish kings and broke England's isolation from continental Europe during Napoleon's era. The alliance is kept through NATO, a military organization in which both countries are founders along with 10 other countries including the USA. Beyond the EU, the country has established a community with its former colonies, the CPLP, and today has very close and prosperous relations with all of them, including close relations with Cape Verde and East Timor. It has a friendship alliance and a dual citizenship treaty with Brazil. The new government has also prioritized relations with neighbouring Spain. It also has very good relations with China, due to Macau, a meeting-point of both nations, and century-old diplomatic ties with Morocco. Portugal considers Olivença ( Olivenza  in Spanish language, administrated by Spain) Portuguese territory  de jure , based on agreements of both nations in the Congress of Vienna of 1815 . This issue has been discussed at the Portuguese Parliament as recently as 2004. The Portuguese Armed Forces are divided into three branches: Portuguese Army, Portuguese Navy, and Portuguese Air Force. In the 20th century, Portugal engaged in two major military interventions, namely the Portugal in the Great War and the colonial wars between 1961 and 1974. This colonial war was harsh and led to even more dislike of the Estado Novo, in fact, the discontent with this war can be traced as one of the major causes of the regime's fall in 1974 with the Carnation Revolution, initiated by the military. Portugal has participated in several peacekeeping missions abroad, namely in East Timor, Bosnia, and Kosovo. During the Durão Barroso government the Armed Forces were fully professionalized and obligatory military service was abolished in 2003. There were and still are small elite units of Portuguese armed forces involved in the Afghanistan and Iraq conflicts. Involvement in the war in Iraq is not seen positively by many Portuguese.

Administrative divisions

Portugal has an administrative structure based on 308 municipalities of Portugal ( concelho  - singular,  concelhos  - plural), which are subdivided into more than 4,000 civil parishes ( freguesias , singular -  freguesia ). Municipalities are grouped for administrative purposes into superior units, the most significant being the classification since 1976, into either mainland ( Portugal continental ) or insular ( Portugal insular ) territory. The latter enjoys a specific administrative and fiscal framework as Autonomous regions of Portugal ( regiões autónomas , singular -  região autónoma ), the Azores and Madeira. There are five regions ( regiões , singular -  região ) in mainland Portugal, and 28 subregions ( subregiões , singular -  subregião ). These are the modern official territorial units in accordance with the Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics (NUTS), in use today by the Instituto Nacional de Estatística and Eurostat, and officially recognised by the European Union. The regions are:

• Alentejo
• Algarve
• Centro, Portugal
• Lisboa, Region
• Norte, Portugal The districts of Portugal ( distritos , singular -  distrito ), are obsolescent administrative subdivisions that however remain in use for very many purposes, from electoral circles to public education and health care, welfare and even league sports. A referendum held in 1997 to institute higher-level regional administrative units failed to achieve the needed majority. Notwithstanding, larger territorial units have been created by the initiative of groups of municipalities to answer the need for supra-municipal coordination especially in heavily urbanised areas. There are three types of Urban areas:
•  Grandes Áreas Metropolitanas  - Grande Área Metropolitana (more than 350,000 inhabitants)
• Lisbon - 2,547,665
• Porto - 1,801,958
• Braga - 754,830
• Aveiro - 460,157
• Coimbra - 430,845
• Faro, Portugal - 391,819
• Viseu - 354,162
•  Comunidades Urbanas  - Urban Communities (more than 150,000 inhabitants)
• Oeste, Vale do Sousa, Leiria, Lezíria do Tejo, Baixo Alentejo, Trás-os-Montes, Centro Alentejo, Baixo Tâmega, Douro, Médio Tejo, Beiras, Beira Interior Sul, and Alto Alentejo;
•  Comunidades Intermunicipais  - Intermunicipal Communities (less than 150,000 inhabitants)
• Pinhal and Vale do Minho. Ad hoc geographic amalgamations also exist to answer the needs of specific economic sectors (e.g. tourist regions) or branches of the state (e.g. judicial areas), while historical or cultural subdivisions continue to be informally referenced such as the provinces ( províncias , singular -  província ): Alentejo, Algarve, Beira, Douro Litoral, Estremadura, Minho (province), Ribatejo, and Trás-os-Montes.

Geography and climate

Continental Portugal is split in two by its main river, the Tagus ( Tejo ). Northern landscape is mountainous in the interior areas with plateaus, cut by four breaking lines that allow the development of relevant agricultural areas. The South area between the Tejo and the Algarve (the Alentejo) features mostly rolling plains with a climate somewhat warmer and drier than the cooler and rainier north. The Algarve, separated from the Alentejo by mountains, enjoys a Mediterranean climate comparable with Morocco or Southern Spain, and is the southwesternmost tip of Europe (Sagres). Other major rivers include the Douro, the Minho and the Guadiana, similar to the Tagus in that all originate in Spain. Another important river, the Mondego, originates in the Serra da Estrela (the highest mountains in mainland Portugal - 1,993 m / 6,532 foot (unit of length)). The islands of the Azores and Madeira are located in the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Some of these islands have had recent volcanic activity. Originally two islands, São Miguel Island was joined by a volcanic eruption in 1563. The last volcano to erupt was the  Vulcão dos Capelinhos  (Capelinhos Volcano) in 1957, in the Western part of Faial Island, increasing the size of that island. Dom João de Castro Bank is a large submarine volcano that lies midway between the islands of Terceira Island and São Miguel and rises to 14 metres (46 ft) under the sea surface. It last erupted in 1720 and formed an island that remained over the water for several years. A new island may be formed in a not so distant future. Portugal's highest point is Mount Pico in Pico Island, an ancient volcano, at 2,351 metres (7,713 ft). The Portuguese coast is extensive, it has 943 kilometres (586 mile) for continental Portugal, 667 kilometres (414 mi) for the Azores, 250 kilometres (155 mi) for Madeira and the Savage Islands . The coast has fine beaches, the Algarve ones being world famous. In Porto Santo Island, a dune formation appeals to many tourists. An important feature on its coast is the Ria de Aveiro (near Aveiro), a delta 45 kilometres (28 mi) in length and a maximum of 11 kilometres (6.8 mi) in width, rich in fish and sea birds. There are four main channels, between them several islands and islets, and it is where four rivers meet the ocean. A sort of narrow headlands formed a lagoon, seen as one of the most remarkable hydrographic features of the Portuguese coast. Portugal possesses one of the largest exclusive economic zones (EEZ) in Europe, covering 1,727,408 square kilometres (666,956 square mile). Portugal is one of the warmest European countries. In mainland Portugal, yearly temperature averages are about 15ºCelsius (55°fahrenheit) in the north and 18ºC (64°F) in the south. Madeira and Azores have a narrower temperature range as expected given their insularity, with the former having low precipitation in most of the archipelago and the latter being wet and rainy. Spring and Summer months are usually sunny and temperature maximum are very high during July and August, with maximums averaging between 35°C and 40°C (86°F - 95°F) in the interior of the country, 30ºC and 35ºC in the north, and reaching 45°C (113°F) in the south. Autumn and Winter are typically rainy and windy, yet sunny days are not rare either. Temperatures usually do not fall below 0°C (32°F) nearer to the sea, averaging 10°C (50°F), but can reach several degrees below 0°C (32°F) further inland. Snow is common in the mountainous areas of the north, especially in Serra da Estrela. Portugal's climate can be classified as Mediterranean climate (particularly the Algarve and Alentejo, though technically on Atlantic shore).

Flora and fauna

Human activity, diversity of climate, and geographical diversity have shaped the Portuguese flora. There are almost 2,800 autochthonous species. For economic reasons, pine trees (especially the  Pinus pinaster  and  Pinus pinea  species), the chestnut tree and the eucalyptus are very widespread. The Peneda-Gerês National Park (mostly known as  Gerês ) is located in the extreme north-west of Portugal. The park has a wide variety of oaken and mixed forests, groves, peat bogs, and diverse Woody plantes, including autochthonous and rare species. It is one of the last Iberian harbours of Wolf, garranos, golden eagles, vultures and honey buzzards amongst many others. The iberian lynx, a once-common indigenous species, is almost extinct in Portuguese terrority, and only few survive in Spain. Boars are common in Alentejo and Trás-os-Montes. The Natural parks of Serra da Estrela, with its broad valleys and turf soils, and the Arrábida, with its Mediterranean character and the sand varieties of its beaches, unveil the ecological variety of Portugal. The Serra da Estrela mountain range is situated in central-east Portugal and a large part of the mountain lies within the limits of the Serra da Estrela Natural Park. The Park covers around 100,000 ha and is administered by six municipalities: Seia, Gouveia, Celorico da Beira, Guarda, Manteigas and Covilhã. These are included in two districts: in the north the Guarda district and in the south the Castelo Branco district. The Tapada Nacional de Mafra is conspicuous, due to its rich flora and fauna. The Tapada was created in the reign of John V of Portugal for royal delight, in an area of 8 square kilometres with deer, wild boars, foxes, birds of prey and several other species. Today, the Tapada is classified as an area of national hunting ( Zona de Caça Nacional ). A large part of Portugal is covered by forest. In the last years, during the hot and dry Summer months, large areas of forest were destroyed by fires, many of which (an estimated 40% in 2004) caused by arson. In 2005 this problem was aggravated by a severe drought affecting Mainland Portugal. In the year to September 2005, three quarters of Mainland Portugal saw less than half the normal rainfall, and the remaining quarter less than 60%. Mixing of cold and warm ocean streams has attracted a wide variety of fish, also allowing development of a great number of seaweeds. These were a focus of famous research by France phycologist Françoise Ardré.

Economy

Since 1985, the country started its modernization in a very stable environment (1985 - to the present day) and it joined the European Economic Community in 1986. Successive governments have implemented various reforms and privatised many state-controlled firms and liberalised key areas of the economy, including the financial and telecommunications sectors. Portugal developed an increasingly service-based economy and it was one of the eleven founding countries of the Euro (€) in 1999 and began circulating the new currency on January 1, 2002 along with eleven other EU members. The major industries are the textile, footwear, leather, furniture, ceramics, and cork. Modern industries have developed significantly, including: oil refineries, petrochemistry, cement production, automotive and ship industries, electrical and electronics industries, machinery and paper industries. Automotive and other mechanical industries are located in Setúbal, Porto, Aveiro, Braga, and Santarém. A considerable part of continental Portugal is dedicated to agriculture, although it does not represent most of the economy. The south has developed an extensive monoculture of cereals and olive trees and the Douro in vineyards. Olive trees (4,000 km²; 1,545 sq mi), vineyards (3,750 km²; 1,450 sq mi), wheat (3,000 km²; 1,160 sq mi) and maize (2,680 km²; 1,035 sq mi) are produced in vast areas. Portuguese wine and olive oil are especially praised by nationals for their quality, thus external competition (even at much lower prices) has had little effect on consumer demand. Portugal is a traditional wine grower, and has exported its wines since the dawn of western civilization; Port Wine and Green Wine are the leading exporters. Portugal is also a quality producer of fruits, namely the Algarve orange (fruit) and Oeste region's Pera Rocha (a type of pear). Other exports are horticulture, floriculture, beet sugar, sunflower oil, and tobacco. Natural resources such as copses cover about 34% of the country, namely pine trees (13,500 km²; 5,200 sq mi), cork oak (6,800 km²; 2,625 sq mi), holm oak (5,340 km²; 2,060 sq mi), and eucalyptus (2,430 km²; 940 sq mi). The large-scale growing of eucalyptus for the paper and woodchip industries has been controversial, as eucalyptus trees have very deep roots, and lead to a lowering of the water table. This has been a contributory factor in the high rate of arson, as failing farmers vent their frustrations. Cork is a major export, Portugal produces half of the world's cork. Significant mining resources are tungsten, tin, and uranium. Portugal's balance of trade is negative. It buys mostly in the European Union from: Spain, Germany, France, Italy, and the United Kingdom. It also sells most of its products within the union to: Germany, Spain, and France mostly. Portugal is trying to develop a cultural and rustic tourism, rather than only beach tourism, in order to attract more affluent tourists often concerned in getting to know the real Portugal. The interior of the nation has a decreasing population, but exceptional touristic potential. The Algarve, with its different beaches has been the primary attraction for decades, but it has suffered from mass tourism, and the authorities have been working to recover the 1960's Algarve, namely recovering the coast. Mass tourism has caused some ecological damage in the Algarve, for example water shortages. The Lisbon and Porto area has recently become a very popular destination, mostly due to the urban historical attractions, but also due to Sintra's fabled palaces and castles located in very romantic scenery. The island territories of Madeira and the Azores also have a growing potential.

Energy, transportation and communications

As of 2006, 55% of Portuguese energy production is made by coal and fuel powerplants. The other 40% is produced by hydroelectrics and 5% by wind energy (an increasing focus over the last few years). Portugal is still highly dependent on oil production and it's inconstant prices. Debate on nuclear energy use has recently been brought to the public but has brought little enthusiasm. Although, like other EU countries Portugal is involved in the JET project. Recently, the construction of a new high-capacity oil refinery has also been announced. Transportation was seen as a priority in the 1990s, pushed by the growing use of automobiles and industrialization. The country has a 68,732 kilometres (42,708 mi) network of highways. Almost 2,000 kilometres (1,240 mi) is the total length of 44 freeways that connect most of the country. Seaports are important due to Portugal's large coastline, and its strategic position in Europe and in the Atlantic ocean. The main seaports are Lisbon in the centre, Leixões (Porto) in the North, Setúbal and Sines, Portugal in the south, Funchal and Ponta Delgada in the Atlantic. The most important airports are those of Lisbon, Faro and Porto, these last two had extensive development recently. There are also important airports in the islands, such as the intercontinental airport of Madeira (Funchal, Madeira Island), Porto Santo (Porto Santo Island), and Ponta Delgada (Azores). The two principal metropolitan areas have subway systems: Lisbon Metro and Porto Metro, both with more than 35 kilometres (22 mi) of commercial lines. Both systems are linked by sharing stations with High-speed Pendolino trains, known as Alfa Pendular, that link both cities. The South Tagus Metro system is in construction and will connect the urban areas south of Lisbon. Another metro system for Coimbra is intended. The Pendolino lines ( Alfa pendular ) of Comboios de Portugal (CP) links Braga, Porto, Coimbra, Lisbon and Faro, linking the country in a vertical way. Intercity and regional trains link these cities with many other cities throughout the country. Construction of a high-speed TGV line connecting Porto and Lisbon, and Lisbon with Madrid will begin in 2008. The line between Porto and Lisbon will have five stations (Porto, Aveiro, Coimbra, Leiria, Ota New Airport and Lisbon), but the trains will rarely stop in the intermediary stations. The New Airport for Lisbon will be built at the same time in Ota, Portugal. In the technology area, Portugal has one of the highest mobile phone possession rates in the world. There have been more mobile phone subscribers than main line subscribers for several years now. Nowadays, there are more than 12 million mobile subscribers and the number of fixed lines has finally become stable at around 4.5 million subscribers after years of spectacular decline. Third generation mobile phones, UMTS, have been largely commercialized by operators since early 2004. The main telecom company is Portugal Telecom (PT), a telecommunications multinational, it dominates some markets, among them the national one. In the mobile section, the market is split between three operators: Telecomunicações Móveis Nacionais, SA (PT group), Vodafone, and Optimus (Sonae). As of March 2006, about 30% of the Portuguese homes had high-speed internet services, a service that can be used at every town of the nation as it is one of the few European country totally covered by high-speed internet services. In the first quarter of 2004, 78% of companies with more than 10 employees had Internet access. Competition of the major broadband Internet providers, sapoadsl and Netcabo (Portugal Telecom) with Clix/Novis (Sonae), has caused large increases in the bandwidth provided to home users in 2005 (from 512Kbit/s and 1Mbit/s to 2 and 4Mbit/s). As of June 2006, average consumer speed is 4Mbit/s, and can go up to 20Mbit/s in Novis' infrastructure. PT group is the leader of the market. Main television broadcasters are the state-run RTP1 and "a 2:" (meaning "the 2:" in port) and the privately owned SIC and TVI. Most Portuguese see television through cable (by June 2004: 73.6% of households), where the major broadcasters have thematic channels and an overall average of 50 to 60 channels is available on the analogue network. The main cable company TV Cabo (PT group) is trying to shift all of its customer services to digital after an unsuccessful experience with Interactive TV.

Demographics

Portugal is a fairly homogeneous country linguistically and religiously. Ethnically, the Portuguese people are a combination of several ethnicities: pre-Roman Iberians and Celts tribes with Ancient Rome and Germanic tribes. Moors became a reduced influence, as essentially they were expelled during the Reconquista. Jews comprised 10% of the population in the 16th Century until they were forced to move abroad or convert to Catholicism. Between 1960 and 1970, more than one million Portuguese emigrated, mostly to other European countries, resulting in a negative population growth. Previously, Brazil had been the destination of many, especially since the 18th century. Since mid 1970s major changes started to influence the country's demographics, the life expectancy went up, the infant mortality rate and the fertility rate broadly declined and, with the decolonisation, many Portuguese returned from Africa. In the 2001 Census, Portugal had 10,356,117 inhabitants (51.7% female). Currently, there are almost 10.6 million inhabitants. By the end of 2003, legal immigrants represented 4.2% of the population, and the largest communities were: Ukraine (15%), Brazilians (14.8%), Cape Verde (14.4%), and Angolans (7.9%). There are also a significant number of illegal immigrants, the treatment of those being now becoming increasingly problematic. Portugal still has 5 million emigrants abroad. The great majority of the Portuguese population adheres to the Catholic Church in Portugal. Religious minorities include a little over 300,000 Protestantism. There are also about 50,000 Muslims and 10,000 Hindus (most of whom came from Goa, a former Portuguese Empire). There are also about 1,000 Jews. There are upwards of 34,000 members of mormons, and Atheism and agnosticism are increasing in number. Portugal's biggest metropolitan cities are Lisbon, Porto, Braga, Coimbra and Aveiro. The country is characterized by municipal cultural differentiation and there is little to no regional differentiation, unlike what happens in other European countries, resulting from the Roman municipalism, but mainly from the  concelho de vizinhos  created possibly during the Moorish rule as the lands were freed from the Visigothic nobles, leading the people of a land to organize itself in concelhos. Portuguese is spoken throughout the country, some of Terra de Miranda's Mirandese language speaking villages being the only linguistic minority.

Education

Portugal's education system is divided into  Pré-Escolar  (children less than 6 years old),  Ensino Básico  (three phases in a total of 9 years),  Ensino Secundário  (secondary education - three years, several areas) and  Ensino Superior  (higher education - Universities and polytechnic). Education is free and compulsory for 9 years of study. A newly undertaken scheme will make education compulsory until the student becomes an adult (18 years old). The country still has a 6.7% illiteracy rate, almost exclusively among the elderly. The first Portuguese university – The  Estudo Geral  (General studies, today's University of Coimbra) - was created on March 1st, 1290 in Lisbon with the document  Scientiae thesaurus mirabilis  by Denis of Portugal. The university was transferred to Coimbra in 1308, though the university moved several times between the two cities until 1537. In 1559, the University of Évora was founded in Portugal by Henry of Portugal, future king of Portugal and it was delivered to the Society of Jesus. In the 18th century Sebastião de Melo, Marquis of Pombal, closed the University of Évora, because he wanted to eliminate the Jesuit power in Portugal and in its empire. He also reformed the University of Coimbra. In 1837 two new higher learning schools were founded, the  Escola Politécnica  (Polytechnic School) in Lisbon and the  Academia Politécnica  in Porto. In the 19th century the industrialization created the need for new education institutions in the country, the "industrial studies". The prime-minister of the Kingdom, Fontes Pereira de Melo, founded in 1852 the  Instituto Industrial de Lisboa  (Institute of Industry, today's Instituto Superior Técnico and Instituto Superior de Engenharia de Lisboa) in Lisbon and the  Escola Industral  (School of Industry, today's Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto) in Porto. In 1825, the Lisbon Royal School of Surgery and Porto Royal School of Surgery had also opened. With the advent of the republic, the polytechnic and surgery schools were incorporated as faculty (university) into the newly created University of Lisbon and the University of Porto, that were both founded in 1911. The Lisbon Institute of Industry led to the creation of Instituto Superior Técnico which was grouped with other existing institutions to constitute the Technical University of Lisbon in the 1930s. In the 1960s the first non-governmental institution opened, the Universidade Católica Portuguesa. The 1970s marked a new era in Portugal's higher education with many universities and polytechnics opening in many cities, such as the University of Aveiro and the University of Minho in the university subsector, and the Polytechnical Institute of Lisbon and Polytechnical Institute of Porto in the polytechnic subsector. Subsequently, several private institutions opened across the country. The Bologna process is being adopted to become effective before 2011.

Law

The Portuguese legal system is part of the civil law or continental family of legal systems. Up to the end of the 19th century French law was the main influence, but since then the major influence has been German law. The main laws include the Constitution (1976, as amended) the Civil Code (1966, as amended) and the Penal Code (1982, as amended). Portuguese law applied in the former colonies and territories and continues to be the major influence. This includes for example the legal system of Macau.

Culture

Portugal is an ancient nation and through more than 1000 years it has developed a specific culture while being influenced by the various civilizations that crossed the Mediterranean world. Thus, it has absorbed traditions from early civilizations and from regions discovered throughout the world during the 500 year long Portuguese empire. An explicit instance of this absorption and adaptation of previous culture is seen in the countless festivals to pagan local and Roman deities which were transformed into festivals to Christian saints; only some pagan festivals have changed little over 2,000 years, due the religious passion of the Middle Ages and the inquisition. Portuguese music has a wide variety of genres. The most renowned Music of Portugal is Fado, a melancholic urban music. Fado is usually associated to the Portuguese guitar and to  saudade , a feeling that occurs when one is in love with someone or something yet apart from him, her, or it. The style conveys a distinct mixture of sadness, pain, nostalgia, happiness and love. Though dilettanti claim that Fado origins are a mixture of African slave rhythms, traditional music of Portuguese sailors and Arabic influence, the early written records about fado connect it to Brazilian modinha in the 19th century. Some of its most internationally notable performers are Amália Rodrigues, Mariza, Ana Moura, Mísia, Dulce Pontes, Madredeus, and Cristina Branco. Currently, mainstream music in Portugal is in a rural and urban duality where the Portuguese pop-rock and Hip hop Tuga are popular with the younger and urban population, while pimba (an informal and rather unflattering word for a simple and cheery variety of pop music) and folklore are more popular in the rural areas and among the important emigrant community. Portuguese literature is one of the earliest Western literatures, and it developed as the 13th century arrived, through texts and songs. Until 1350, the Portuguese-Galician troubadours spread their literary influence to most of the Iberian Peninsula . King Dinis favoured Occitan-inspired cantigas. Gil Vicente was the author to some transition theatrical pieces known as Auto (art) and is considered as one of the main founders of both Portuguese and Spanish dramatic traditions. Bernardim Ribeiro and Sá de Miranda rank among the most eminent Renaissance writers. Adventurer and poet Luís de Camões (c.1524 - 1580) wrote the epic poem  The Lusiads , a work that he developed during his journeys in Africa and Asia and that has Virgil's Aeneid as main model. According to his own account, he was shipwrecked in Cambodia, and saved himself and his work by floating on a board. Modern Portuguese poetry, since the 19th century, is essentially rooted in a handful of relevant poets, ranging from neo-classicism to contemporary styles. One such famous poet is Fernando Pessoa (1888 – 1935), who wrote poetry in the voice, style and manner of many fictional poets under a large number of Heteronym (literature). Modern literature also became internationally known, mostly through the works of Almeida Garrett, Alexandre Herculano, Camilo Castelo Branco, Manuel Maria Barbosa de Bocage, Eça de Queirós, Fernando Pessoa, Ferreira de Castro, Sophia de Mello Breyner Andresen, Herberto Helder, António Lobo Antunes, Alexandre O'Neill and the 1998 Nobel Prize for literature winner, José Saramago. Portuguese traditional architecture is distinct precisely due to the variety of influences it features, with several examples throughout the world, some of which are classified as world heritage sites. Modern Portugal has one of the best architecture schools in the world, known as "Escola do Porto" or School of Porto, renowned by the names of Eduardo Souto de Moura and Alvaro Siza. Prominent figures in visual arts, known internationally are the painters Vieira da Silva and Paula Rego. Since the 90´s Portugal increased the number of cultural facitilies where art and culture can be apreciatted by a wider public. These include the  Centro Cultural de Belém  (CCB) in Lisbon,  Fundação Serralves  (Serralves Foundation) and  Casa da Música  (House of Music) both in Porto. Recently the announcement that Portuguese state will take care and exhibit permanently one of the greatest modern and contemporary art collections in Europe owned by Business magnate José Berardo generated a great deal of controversy.

Cuisine

Portuguese cuisine is particularly diverse; various recipes of rice, potatoes, bread, meat, sea-food, and fish are the staple foods in the country. The Portuguese have a reputation for loving cod dishes ( bacalhau  in Portuguese), for which it is said that there are 365 ways (one for each day of the year) of cooking it: Pastéis de Bacalhau, Bacalhau à Brás and Bacalhau à Gomes de Sá are some of the most popular ones. Other fish recipes are popular like the grilled sardines and Caldeirada. The art of pastry, having its origins in old and rich conventual pastry recipes, is very popular across the entire country. Desserts and cakes, such as Lisbon's Pastéis de Nata (best eaten with a strong coffee), Aveiro's Ovos-Moles, and many other, are very appreciated. Portugal has its own adaptation of fast-food; one of the most popular is Porto's Francesinha. Other recipes include the Feijoada, made with pieces of meat, sausages and beans served with white and dry rice, the Cozido à Portuguesa, made with various kinds of meat, rice, potatoes and other vegetables, all boiled, and the Espetadas. Portuguese wines have been exported since Roman times. The Romans associated Portugal with Bacchus, their god of Winery and Feast. Today the country is known by wine lovers, and its wines have won several international prizes. Many famous Portuguese wines are known as some of the world's best: Vinho Verde, Vinho Alvarinho, Vinho do Douro, Vinho do Alentejo, Vinho do Dão, Vinho da Bairrada and the sweet: Port Wine, Madeira wine and the Moscatels of Setúbal and Favaios (Douro). Porto Wine is widely exported, followed by Vinho Verde. Exports of Vinho Verde are increasing rapidly, in response to the growing international demand.

Sports and games

Football (soccer) is the most popular and practised sport in Portugal. As of May 2006, the Portugal national football team was FIFA World Rankings out of 205 countries by FIFA. The legendary Eusébio is still a symbol of Portuguese football. Luís Figo was voted 2001 Player of the Year by FIFA, after finishing 2nd in 2000. Manuel Rui Costa and Cristiano Ronaldo are also noteworthy and Vítor Baía is the player in history with most titles won, including all European club cups. Moreover, José Mourinho is regarded as one of the most successful and well-paid football managers in football's history. The main domestic Football (soccer) competition is the Portuguese Liga where the dominating teams are SL Benfica, FC Porto and Sporting CP. Portugal hosted and nearly won EURO 2004, getting defeated in the final by surprise winner Greece national football team. The Portuguese national team also reached the semi-finals of the FIFA World Cup twice, in 1966, when Eusebio was the top scorer, with 9 goals, and 2006. Many other professional and well organized sport competitions take place every season in Portugal, including basketball, futsal, rink hockey, team handball, volleyball, and Rugby union championships. Cycling, with Volta a Portugal being the most important race, and athletics (track and field) competitions are also popular. In rink hockey Portugal is the country with most world titles: 15 Rink Hockey World Championship and 20 Rink Hockey European Championship, and in rugby sevens the Portuguese team has won many international trophies, having as of July 2006 five European Championship titles. Golf is also worth mentioning, since its greatest players play in the sunny region of the Algarve during the "Algarve Open". The Autódromo do Estoril in the Estoril, near Lisbon, is the main Portuguese race track where many motorsport competitions are held, including the MotoGP and A1 Grand Prix. Rallying (with the Rally of Portugal and Rally Madeira) and off-road (with the Baja Portugal 1000 and recently Dakar Rally) events also have international recognition. The country has an ancient martial art known as "Jogo do Pau" (Portuguese Stick Fencing), used for self-protection and for duels between young men in disputes over young women. Having its origin in the Middle Ages, Jogo do Pau uses wooden staves as a combat weapon. Other sports are the "Jogos Populares", a wide variety of traditional sports played for fun.

Festivals and holidays

Festivals play a major role in Portugal's summers. Every city and town has its own festivals. The June Festivities are very popular. These festivities are dedicated to three saints known as  Santos Populares  (popular saints) and take place all over Portugal. Why the populace associated the saints with these pagan festivities is not known. The practice is possibly related to Roman or local deities before Christianity spread into the region. The three saints are Anthony of Padua, John the Baptist and Saint Peter. A common denominator in these festivities are the wine and  água-pé  (a watered kind of wine), traditional bread along with sardines, marriages, traditional street dances, fire, fireworks and celebration. Saint Anthony is celebrated on the June 13, mainly in Lisbon and Saint John on the June 24, especially in Porto and Braga, where the sardines, Caldo Verde (traditional soup in entire Portugal) and plastic hammers to hammer on other peoples' heads for luck are indispensable. The final saint is Saint Peter, celebrated on the nights of June 28 and June 29, especially in Póvoa de Varzim and Barcelos, festivities are similar to the others, but mostly dedicated to the sea and extensive use of fire ( fogueiras ). In Póvoa de Varzim, there is the  Rusgas  in the night, another sort of street carnival. Each festivity is a municipal holiday in the cities and towns where it occurs. Carnival is also widely celebrated in Portugal, some traditional carnivals date back several centuries. Loulé, Alcobaça, Mealhada and above all Ovar hold several days of festivities, with parades where social and political criticism abound, music, dancing in an environment of euphorya. On January 6, Epiphany (feast) is celebrated by some families, especially in the North, where the family gathers to eat "Bolo-Rei" (literally, King Cake, a cake made with crystallized fruits); this is also the time for the traditional street songs - "As Janeiras" (The January ones). Martin of Tours, is celebrated on November 11. This day is the peak of three days, often with very good weather, it is known as  Verão de São Martinho  ("Saint Martin summer"), the Portuguese celebrate it with  jerupiga  (a sweet liqueur wine) and roasted Portuguese chestnuts ( castanhas assadas ), and it is called  Magusto . ;National Holidays

See also

Notes and references

• Portuguese has been the official language of Portugal since 1296, replacing Classical Latin, the official language since independence. Portuguese descends from Vulgar Latin. In Portugal, the local Vulgar Latin was known as Vulgar Language before it was renamed Portuguese. Mirandese, a related Romance languages, is officially recognized in the municipality of Miranda do Douro, and spoken in the villages of the municipality.

References

• Ribeiro, Ângelo & Saraiva, José Hermano  História de Portugal I - A Formação do Território  QuidNovi, 2004 (ISBN 9895541066)
• Ribeiro, Ângelo & Saraiva, José Hermano  História de Portugal II - A Afirmação do País  QuidNovi, 2004 (ISBN 9895541074)
• de Macedo, Newton & Saraiva, José Hermano  História de Portugal III - A Epopeia dos Descobrimentos  QuidNovi, 2004 (ISBN 9895541082)
• de Macedo, Newton & Saraiva, José Hermano  História de Portugal IV - Glória e Declínio do Império  QuidNovi, 2004 (ISBN 9895541090)
• Ribeiro, Ângelo & Saraiva, José Hermano  História de Portugal V - A Restauração da Indepêndencia  QuidNovi, 2004 (ISBN 9895541104)
• Saraiva, José Hermano  História de Portugal X - A Terceira República  QuidNovi, 2004 (ISBN 9895541155)
• Loução, Paulo Alexandre:  Portugal, Terra de Mistérios  Ésquilo, 2000 (third edition; ISBN 9728605048)
• Muñoz, Mauricio Pasto:  Viriato, A Luta pela Liberdade  Ésquilo, 2003 (third edition; ISBN 9728605234)* Grande Enciclopédia Universal  Durclub, 2004* Constituição da República Portuguesa , VI Revisão Constitucional, 2004* Programa do Movimento das Forças Armadas , 1974http://www.uc.pt/ihti/proj/docs25a/MFA1-1.HTM

External links

• Portugal's official travel and tourism website
• Presidence of the Republic
• Portuguese Government
• Assembly of the Republic
• National Library of Portugal
• Wikitravel guide to Portugal
  
  
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